Temple Emanu-El of Bayonne, NJ

By Rabbi Shaul Marshall Praver

And what modern psychology would look like if it originated from Ancient Israel

The Greeks were great thinkers and their contributions enjoy foundational status in western civilization and beyond. Whenever we want to know the origins of things, we are usually referred to Greek sources. In the case of modern psychology, we are told it originated from the famous philosophical edict, “know thyself,” which was inscribed on the Temple of Apollo at Delphi. This phrase is commonly attributed to Socrates, who built on this idea and believed that self-awareness was key to living a good life. He argued that to know oneself was to understand one’s own limits and to be aware of one’s own ignorance, which he considered to be the first step towards wisdom. I whole heartedly agree. Moreover, Socrates drew from Homer’s epic poems, they were among the earliest works of Western literature, composed in the eighth or ninth century BCE. The Iliad focuses on the Trojan War, while the Odyssey tells the story of the Greek hero Odysseus, who after fighting in the Trojan War, struggles to return home. The poems are important not only for their content, but also for their form, which became influential in the development of Western literature.

Socrates, lived in Athens during the fifth century BCE. and was known for his method of questioning, which he used to challenge his students’ beliefs and values. He believed that knowledge and wisdom were important for living a good life, and that understanding oneself was key. Socrates never wrote anything himself, so our understanding of his ideas comes mainly from the writings of his students, Plato and Xenophon, who recorded his conversations in their works and at times added their own voices to the story.

I am a big fan of Socrates and I have tremendous admiration for the foundational influence Greeks have had on philosophy, democracy and psychology, to name but a few ancient Greek treasures. The very word “Philosophy,” has such a beautiful Greek etymology —-‘philos’ means ‘love’ or ‘friendship’, and ‘sophia’ means ‘wisdom’. Thus, philosophy literally means ‘love of wisdom’. The term ‘philosopher’ was first used by the Greek thinker Pythagoras in the 6th century BCE, and it was later adopted by other philosophers such as Socrates and Plato. And the etymology of “Psychology” ain’t bad either —-The word ‘psychology’ originates from the Greek ‘psyche’ which means ‘soul’ or ‘mind’, and ‘logos’ means ‘study’ or ‘knowledge’. Thus, psychology literally means ‘the study of the soul’ or ‘the study of the mind’.

As good as this all sounds, I confess, a sneaky Jewish thought has been rattling around my brain for a long time. Bear with me as I reveal it.

Not only is history written by the victors but future civilizations are founded by them as well. The Israelite civilization was defeated, enslaved, destabilized and expelled from the land by the Romans who are nestled on the broad shoulders of extraordinary Greek intellectual achievements. Roman intellectuals such as Cicero, Seneca, Plutarch and Lucretius integrated Greek intellectual knowledge into Roman civilization. Cicero was a Roman philosopher, politician, and orator who played a significant role in the intellectual and cultural life of Ancient Rome. He was a student of Greek philosophy and literature, and he translated many works from Greek into Latin, including the works of Plato, Aristotle, and others.

Seneca was a Roman philosopher, statesman, and playwright who was heavily influenced by Greek thought. He studied under the Greek philosopher Attalus and was well-versed in Stoic philosophy. His works were known for their focus on ethics and morality, and his writings influenced many later philosophers.

Plutarch was a Greek writer and philosopher who was born in Chaeronea, Greece but spent most of his life in Rome. He wrote many biographies of famous Greeks and Romans and was known for his deep understanding of Greek philosophy and literature.

And Lucretius was a Roman poet and philosopher who was heavily influenced by Epicurean philosophy. His poem, De rerum natura (On the Nature of Things), was a major work that presented a comprehensive account of Epicurean philosophy and its implications for human life.

As such, the field of psychology and a great many other intellectual institutions were constructed on the Greeks which was integrated into the vast Roman empire.

My sneaky thought is this— If modern psychology were based on the Torah, it would be based on the idea that human beings are made in the image of God and are so fundamentally valuable, significant, and deserving of respect. This view is reflected in Genesis 1:27 which states that “God created mankind in his own image, in the image of God he created them; male and female he created them.”

The Bible also contains many passages that relate to understanding oneself and one’s emotional states. The Greek “Know thyself, is awesome and greatly admired, but contrary to popular belief, it is not the only or original expression of this value. The only reason it is codified as the foundation of modern psychology is because Rome won the war against Israel. As such, the west gets to boast of its achievements and exercise her ongoing influence and claim to her intellectual property.

But, let’s pretend just for a nano second that the many worlds theory in quantum physics is correct and there is a parallel universe where modern psychology grew out of Torah and Mitzvah. What would the field of psychology look like had it originated as such? What if its founding father was Moses not Pythagoras?

Psychological theory would have developed quite differently in my estimation because these cultures while having much in common, also have to some extent, different worldviews, perspectives, and values. Scholarly research suggests several potential differences.

Firstly, the concept of the self is an important aspect of psychology that may have developed differently if Torah and Talmudic literature was the origin. According to Taylor and Brown (1988), psychology often depicts the self as a distinct entity that is separate from social and cultural contexts, whereas Talmudic literature emphasizes self-awareness and personal responsibility in the context of the community. Therefore, psychological theory originating from Tenach and Talmudic literature would have likely placed more importance on an individual’s connection to their community and sense of social responsibility.

Secondly, biblical and Talmudic literature place a high value on morality and ethics, with the Ten Commandments being the basis for moral values. In contrast, ancient Greek philosophy primarily focused on reason and logic. As a result, psychological theory originating from the Torah, Tenach and the Talmud might have placed more emphasis on moral values such as compassion, forgiveness, and love (Leming, 1995).

Thirdly, the perception of mental illness may have been different if psychological theory originated from biblical and Talmudic literature. According to Pargament (2014), the Torah views mental illness as a physical and spiritual condition that is often treatable with prayer, compassion and spiritual care. Whereas, Hippocrates of Greece, widely regarded as the father of medicine rejected the belief in any sort of divine intervention; yet at the same time never denied the divinity of the disease as part of his understanding of the natural world.

(Tzeferakos and Douzenis, 2014)

Moreover, the Tenach contains examples of literature that encourage people to engage in self-reflection as a means of gaining knowledge, wisdom, and understanding. The book of Ecclesiastes states that there is a time and a place for everything, including joy, sorrow, anger, and other emotions. Additionally, the book of Proverbs offers practical wisdom on topics such as self-control, patience, and humility. The Torah emphasizes the significance of love, compassion, and forgiveness as important concepts in human relationships. “Love God with all your heart,” and “Love your neighbor as yourself.” The Torah also addresses the topic of suffering, providing comfort and hope in times of mental and emotional distress. The book of Psalms, for example, contains many passages that express grief, sadness, and despair, but also point to the hope and comfort that can be found in God.

Overall, it is important to recognize the potential differences that might arise in psychological theory if it had originated from biblical and Talmudic literature rather than Greek philosophy. Understanding these differences can help broaden our understanding of psychological theory and its development over time. In many instances though, the two bodies of literature would have us arrive at the same conclusions. We’d therefore have to take a much deeper dive into this study to get a clearer view. The scope of thus essay is intended to merely spark curiosity about some of these questions.

Carrying on—the book of Proverbs is rich in wisdom literature and teaches readers to seek wisdom, insight, and understanding in order to navigate life’s challenges. Proverbs 4:7 notes that “Wisdom is supreme; therefore get wisdom. Though it cost all you have, get understanding.” This verse indicates that one must engage in deep self-reflection and invest time and effort in acquiring knowledge and understanding to acquire wisdom.

The Psalms contain a great deal of introspective literature in which the Psalmists examine their own hearts and minds to determine their place in the world. For example, Psalm 139:23-24 says “Search me God, and know my heart; test me and know my anxious thoughts. See if there is any offensive way in me, and lead me in the way everlasting.” This Psalm shows the writer’s willingness to examine themselves to gain self-awareness and shows the importance of being aware of one’s own thoughts and actions in order to grow and learn. However, it is unique in that a person walks with God as a portable source of knowledge that one could consult. It’s a curious system that places a person’s introspection before God who could provide bio-feedback and guidance. Whereas, the Greek system feels much more lonely, where the person looks within in a sort of dialog with themselves based on rational systems of thought. As admirable as both approaches are, they do have slight differences in emphasis, and weight or value they give to these core beliefs.

The book of Ecclesiastes contains passages that question the meaning of life and the purpose of existence. In Ecclesiastes 1:12-18, the author reflects on the limitations of wisdom, the importance of self-awareness and gaining understanding, and the realization that one will never possess all the answers. This passage shows the importance of knowing oneself, being aware of what one knows and doesn’t know, and acknowledging one’s limitations as an important part of gaining wisdom and knowledge.

The prophet Jeremiah also highlights the importance of self-reflection as a way to gain understanding about oneself and the world.

In Jeremiah 17:9-10, he warns that the heart is deceitful and that only God can truly know it. This passage encourages readers to examine their own hearts, motives, and desires in order to gain a deeper understanding of themselves and their place in the world. It also warns us against self-deception and would tend to seek bio feedback from God and the te community of Israel. Again it suggests a more communal setting than the Greeks may wish to render the picture.

Overall, the Tenach contains many examples of Hebraic literature that promote self-reflection as a means of gaining understanding of oneself and the world. These examples highlight the importance of self-awareness in order to gain wisdom and knowledge and to recognize that we all have limitations that can only be overcome by seeking truth through self-examination and reliance on a higher power and wisdom of the sages.

Having said that, it seems that we don’t really need to conceive of this in a quantum parallel universe after all, because the field of psychology today is heavily supplemented with spirituality from not only Torah and Mitzvoth but many faith traditions. And as such, the field is not as binary as I originally let on. Fortunately there is plenty of ambiguity, complexity, and nuance keeping psychology crackling with innovative energy.

There are several modern psychological theorists who have added elements of spirituality into their psychological theory and practice.

Viktor Frankl: A Holocaust survivor and a prominent philosopher and psychologist, developed a therapeutic approach called logotherapy, inspired by his study of existential philosophy. Logotherapy emphasizes the search for meaning and purpose in life, which is in accord with systems of Jewish spirituality.

Aaron Beck: Beck is the founder of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), which is one of the most widely used forms of psychotherapy today. Beck’s approach incorporates Jewish wisdom and values, emphasizing the importance of emotion regulation, study of sacred texts meaningful to the client and prayer, when desired, as tools for improving mental health and well-being.

Irwin Yalom: A renowned psychologist and existential psychotherapist, Yalom has written extensively on the importance of existential concerns in psychotherapy, drawing from Jewish philosophical and theological concepts. Yalom sees the therapeutic relationship as an opportunity for growth and transformation, based on the principles of self-awareness, personal responsibility, and social connectedness.

David Pelcovitz: A clinical psychologist and professor of psychology and education at Yeshiva University, Pelcovitz has developed a model of psychospiritual integration that emphasizes the cohesiveness of psychological and spiritual aspects of human experience. Pelcovitz integrates Jewish traditions, values, and practices into his therapeutic work, recognizing that these are often critical to healing and growth.

Edward Hoffman: A clinical psychologist and professor of psychology at Yeshiva University, Hoffman is the founder of the New York Institute of Jewish Spirituality. Hoffman has written extensively on the connections between spirituality, psychology, and Jewish wisdom, emphasizing the importance of mindfulness, self-awareness, and ethical values in psychological well-being.

These examples demonstrate how psychological theorists have integrated elements from biblical and Talmudic literature into various forms of psychological theory and practice, highlighting the impact of cultural and religious values on psychological theory and the importance of cross-cultural integration.

In review, psychological theories initially sprouted from the Greeks into western civilization and is in large part still taught that way today. However, new voices are being heard with new theories that make space and integrate spirituality of every type into the practice of Psychology.

A prime example is found in Lisa Miller, a professor at Columbia University’s Teachers College in New York City where she is the founder and director of the university’s Spirituality Mind Body Institute where I’ve had the great pleasure to guest lecture and assist students on several occasions. Dr Miller is also a clinical psychologist and the author of the book, “The Spiritual Child: The New Science on Parenting for Health and Lifelong Thriving”.

Professor Miller has conducted extensive research on spirituality and its impact on mental and physical health, particularly in children and adolescents. She believes that spirituality plays a crucial role in a child’s development, regardless of their religious background, and that it can lead to improved health, resilience, and well-being.

Under her leadership, the Spirituality Mind Body Institute has become a major center of research and training in the field of spirituality and psychology, offering programs that explore the intersection of science and spiritual practice. Miller has also been recognized for her contributions to the field of psychology, receiving numerous awards and honors, including the Templeton Prize in 2019. Her work has been featured in major media outlets, including The New York Times, The Wall Street Journal, and NPR, among others.

Overall, Professor Lisa Miller is a leading figure in the field of spirituality and psychology, and her research and teaching continue to shape our understanding of the role that spirituality plays in our lives and well-being.

With all this in mind, it is clear today that the modern field of psychology is vast and varied with theorists of many kinds. Major schools and theories in the field include:

Psychodynamic Theory: This theory, developed by Sigmund Freud, emphasized the impact of unconscious thoughts, desires, and conflicts on behavior and mental health.

Behaviorism: This school of psychology, pioneered by John B Watson and B.F. Skinner, emphasized the importance of observable behavior and learning through reinforcement and punishment.

Humanism: This school of psychology, represented by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, emphasized the role of personal growth, self-acceptance, and the importance of self-actualization in achieving one’s full potential.

Cognitive Psychology: This school of psychology, which emerged in the 1960s, emphasized the role of mental processes, such as thinking, perception, and attention, in shaping behavior and the human experience.

Evolutionary Psychology: This theory, influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution, suggests that psychological traits, such as emotions and behaviors, are inherited and developed through natural selection.

Positive Psychology: This school of psychology, developed by Martin Seligman, emphasized the importance of positive emotions, character traits, and behavior in promoting personal growth and happiness.

Biological Psychology: This theory focuses on the role of genetics, biology, and neuroscience in shaping behavior and mental processes. It emphasizes the importance of understanding the biological basis of behavior and mental health.

And while we don’t see explicit schools that include spiritual informed approaches in the contemporary telling of history, I believe that is about to change.